New genomic technologies
What is directed genome editing?
Jessica Davis Plüss, Explainer: The controversy behind genome editing our food
Russian-language version and scientific editorial board: Igor Petrov, Swissinfo.
The question of how to feed the world is becoming more and more relevant. Scientists and politicians are looking for ways to produce more food on a planet under increasing pressure from the negative effects of climate change.
Genome editing technologies, such as CRISPR-Cas9, are being offered to us today as a way to feed the planet in the face of the growing impact of the negative effects of climate change. Some experts claim that this technology simply accelerates what is already happening in nature or using conventional breeding methods, and can help create vegetables and other crops that can cope with pests and the effects of climate change.
Others say that genome editing is a danger to human health and the environment and that this technology can be used to produce GMO products. Many fear that these technologies will lead to the fact that a large part of the world food system will end up in the hands of large agribusiness. But what is it all about?
1. What is directed genome editing and how is this technology applied in the agricultural sector of the economy?
Genome editing (also known as "gene editing") involves a method of modifying the DNA of living organisms, such as plants, animals and humans. Breeders have been changing genes for many years in order to breed improved varieties of agricultural plants, but recent technological advances have made it possible to edit the genomes of organisms faster, cheaper and more accurately.
One of the tools for this is CRISPR-Cas9 (short palindromic repeats, regularly arranged in groups, and the associated protein Cas9/clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and associated protein 9). Discovered in 2012, this tool acts like a pair of scissors, cutting DNA in a certain place, which allows you to very accurately change the characteristics of a plant — from the color and size of vegetables or fruits to their nutritional value and ability to resist diseases and pesticides.
Other common technologies for genome editing include ZFNs (nucleases with "zinc fingers" or zinc finger — a small structural motif of a protein stabilized by one or two zinc ions linked by coordination bonds with amino acid residues in the protein composition) and TALENs (nucleases with effectors similar to transcription activators).
There is currently a debate about how to classify and label genome editing performed using tools such as CRISPR-Cas9. The European Union uses the term "new genomic technologies" to refer to technologies that can change the genetic material of an organism and appeared mainly developed after 2001.
2. What is the difference between seeds with edited genome and genetically modified seeds (GMOs)?
Traditional breeding includes such stages as identification, selection and "crossing" of plants over several generations to improve the desired characteristics of a given crop. Over the years, this process has become more efficient thanks to the use of large arrays of digital data and genome sequencing.
Genome editing using CRISPR-Cas9 has a number of special applications. This tool can be used to insert DNA of the same species into different plant species — for example, wild potatoes and cultivated potatoes. It can also mount the DNA of one organism, such as an insect, into the gene of another species, such as a plant. The result is what is commonly called a genetically modified organism (GMO).
EU legislation defines GMOs as "organisms in which genetic material (DNA) has been modified in ways not found in nature as a result of mating or natural recombination." However, GMOs developed in the 1990s used less precise and "clean" methods than the new genome editing tools developed after 2001. In other words, the difference is only in the quality of the final result, for clarity, you can compare a muddy movie on a cassette in the mid-90s with a 4K movie these days.
3. Why does the use of genome editing techniques in agriculture cause such controversy?
The main debate is about the potential benefits and risks to both human health and the environment. Proponents of genome editing techniques, including large seed companies, argue that this technology simply accelerates what is already happening in nature or what has been done before simply using traditional breeding methods, and therefore the risks are minimal. They also claim that tools such as CRISPR-Cas9 are more accurate and "clean" than earlier methods of genetic engineering, so the risk that a useful gene will be destroyed during the editing process has now become much smaller.
Critics argue that genome editing can still create a number of changes in plant genomes that pose a risk to biodiversity, to water and soil, to human health and to the production of "organic" food. Many are concerned that such crops can displace natural species and create a situation of domination of monocultures that have a destructive effect on ecosystems. And all the risks have not yet been fully studied. There are also ethical and social issues: when and where this technology should be used, who will have priority access to new seeds.
4. At what stage is the process of developing the right regulatory framework for this area?
The regulatory framework is now in a fluid, changeable state. Technological developments and challenges related to climate change are prompting some countries to change their policies on genetic engineering. The USA and Canada have so far decided not to regulate the technique of genome editing, provided that these genetic changes could be made by traditional methods.
This means that plants with genomic modification are not subject to GMO safety protocols and requirements for appropriate labeling. The UK took a similar position last year in 2021. Some countries, such as Brazil and Argentina, consider organisms modified by genomic editing as ordinary plants, provided that they do not contain foreign DNA.
In Japan, such crops must be registered, but they do not need to be tested for safety or environmental friendliness. In December 2020, Tokyo gave the "green light" for the sale of edited tomatoes.
China strictly restricts the import and domestic production of genetically modified crops, but so far it has not regulated genome editing techniques in any way. The Chinese government is investing heavily in this technology to strengthen the country's food security, but so far it has not certified a single genetically modified food product for sale on the market.
Two years ago, the Russian government adopted a program for the development of genetic technologies until 2027. By the end of the program, it is planned to create 30 species (at least four of the main agricultural crops in Russia — wheat, potatoes, sugar beet, barley and others) of genetically edited animals and plants.
Switzerland has so far followed the example of the EU, which has included genome editing in its "GMO Directive" since 2001. This decision was supported by a ruling of the European Court of Justice in 2018, which stated that genome editing has no history of safe use. In April 2021, the European Commission took a more favorable position. In her study, she recommended adapting the relevant legislation "to reflect the latest achievements of scientific and technological progress, in particular, in the field of new genomic technologies."
In December of last year, 2021, one of the chambers of the Swiss parliament voted to exclude plants that have undergone genome editing from the moratorium on breeding plants with GMOs. Many experts and politicians, however, urge the parliament, before making a final decision, to stock up on a much larger number of proofs of the guaranteed safety of this technology than now.
5. Are there any food products on the market that have undergone genomic editing?
So far, there are only a few foods on the world market that have undergone genomic modification: These are soybeans with a healthier fatty acid profile, admitted to the US market and developed using TALENs technology, and tomatoes bred using CRISPR technology, sold in Japan since September 2021, being enriched with gamma-aminobutyric acid (participates in neurotransmitter and metabolic processes in the brain).
Scientists are currently working on a number of varieties of vegetables and fruits, including a special type of mushroom called "button mushroom", resistant to rot, tomatoes without seeds, herbicide-resistant rapeseed oil of the type "canola" ("Canadian low acidity oil"), especially starchy potatoes, cocoa, resistant to fungal and viral diseases, and sweeter strawberries with a longer shelf life.
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